I.INTRODUCTION

In the quest towards achieving an overall effective street space within Tokyo and Manila, the task becomes two-fold. On the one hand, it should try to discover a distinct street tradition through the identification of local street histories and how such knowledge could provide insights into user attributes; on the other hand, it should also consider the street user as the pivotal influential factor in street design and management through the examination of the two components of street user behavior, namely: movement and non-movement component. The latter has been defined as an emergent function of movement which is significantly influenced by socio-cultural factors. Thus, it is in the non-movement behavior that the salient difference in space perception and use between Asian models and its Western counterpart may be concretely differentiated. Moreover, the consideration of non-movement in the design and provision of spaces reflects a more holistic and sustainable approach towards discovering a truly distinct space and use within the two case cities. Socio-cultural history and indigenous knowledge of a group are strongly correlated with its ecological attributes such as geography, climate, ecosystem, vegetation, among others.

The rationale for choosing the two cities in the case study are as follows: both are Asian cities, have similar geographical makeup, archipelagic and with similar indigenous beliefs related to the forest. The main difference lies on the level of external (Western) influence which led to the diversity in the socio-historical conditions between the two cities. Edo was under seclusion policy for 250 years, constraining the physical development of the area to concepts developed within the country while the Philippines had been subjected to urban planning laws and regulations under Spanish colonial rule, and thus, exemplifies a colonial city.

Does ENVIRONMENT really play a role in shaping street SPACE and USE? and Should MOVEMENT be the deciding factor in the design and management of street space? What are the various INFLUENCES that shaped Edo and colonial Manila streets? What SPECIFIC CONCEPTS were derived in comparing Edo (Tokyo, 1603-1868) and Manila (1565-1898) street spaces? Are the concepts replicable on the present street space? What are the needs and prioritization of needs of contemporary street users? What is the relationship of movement and non-movement within Edo and Manila streets? How can sidewalks and spaces for pedestrians in Tokyo and Manila be effectively managed?

II.RESEARCH DESIGN

With the overall goal of developing the concept of non-movement, the study utilized two major methodologies. These are the: 1) comparative analysis of visual representations of Edo and Manila streets; and 2) AHP of street users. The former aims to determine workable concepts derived from indigenous knowledge while the latter aims to determine hierarchies of street user needs as well as emphasize elements that describe a positive walking environment. The study culminated with the development of applicable concepts for the effective design and management of streets in Tokyo and Manila.

The comparative survey validated the forest-based street culture concept by conducting a cross-case comparative analysis which examined street culture and pedestrian behavior in both Edo and colonial Manila from a spatio-historical perspective. A spatio-historical approach is one way to look at traditional, indigenous knowledge that would help us better understand street use as well as pedestrian behavior so as to define the parameters towards a more effective contemporary street space. This is based on the hypothesis that given two very different historical trends of Tokyo, under seclusion policy, and Manila, a colonial city, there exists a deep and underlying parallelism on how people utilize space, giving rise to a distinctly Asian culture of space. The aim was to search for important patterns, street cultural themes and interrelationships that may provide design clues for the improvement of Asian streets.

The thrust of the second methodology was to evaluate the needs-hierarchy concept which was derived from the cross-comparative analysis of spatio-historical spaces. This was done through the implementation of the need-hierarchy survey by utilizing Thomas Saaty's analytic hierarchy process (AHP) developed in 1971 which is a comprehensive framework that can rationalize a problem, represent and quantify elements to make decisions in situations involving multiple objectives.

III.FINDINGS

A)INFLUENCES ON SPACE AND USE

The forest-based culture strongly influenced the socio-cultural history of Asian streets served as potential window to discover the pedestrian street culture of the past wherein the latter may provide us with design recommendations on contemporary street improvement to encourage more users to utilize a given space.

Ecological Consideration: Forest-based Culture. Monsoon climate and the forest ecosystem placed a deep impact on people's way-of-life and behavior, and further influenced the ecological and biological adaptations of both cities as well as how streets are formed and used in Edo and colonial Manila. Both cities came from a forest ecology which implies a diverse environment and the availability of food and shelter for its first inhabitants. This kind of environment encourages among its settlers a healthy respect for and harmony with the natural environment; a strong belief of equality among beings; the lack of hierarchy as seen in how Asians presently utilize space treating it as an equalizer among the various classes and among transport modes. Furthermore, forest-based streets do not segregate but rather integrate its elements; the carrying capacity of a given unit of space is much higher in the forest than in the desert thus the comfort levels of entities within the forest can tolerate higher densities as compared to the desert; the flexibility of space is also dictated by a forest-based settlement since a given space may be utilized for different purposes and not necessarily just for a single activity, and may be illustrated in the attribute of verticality (temporal segregation rather than physical). The forest also influenced the morphology of settlements such as organic road systems, 2-3 storey built structures which follow the contours of the site often portraying a human scale urban form.

Socio-Cultural Resources: Spatio-historical consideration. Knowing and understanding the socio-cultural history and indigenous knowledge of a group is prerequisite in improving pedestrian transport policy and provision since a different culture requires different treatment of space to be able to match it with users' needs and desires. Contextual appropriateness refers to the design of sidewalks, or pedestrian facilities for that matter, which is context-specific. It requires the knowledge of the existing culture to determine appropriateness of the measure.

Edo and Manila streets. Urban configuration of Manila resulted from strong acculturation and Castilian influence similar environmental background (forest ecosystem, monsoon climate, etc), resulted in more similar attributes than difference. Results show that both city streets accommodate low-rise structures, the use protective elements, the presence of signage, and the emergence of Non-movement pocket spaces while environmental elements are significantly present in Edo but not in Manila. Both streets reflect the following attributes: compactness, protective, social quality, intimacy, equity, and diversity. Thus, there is a need to consider their environmental origins.

B)USER-CENTERED APPROACH

One strategy to improve mobility is to encourage a user-centered space design and management. User-centered approach refers to basing management strategies on needs and desires of users and how these may be physically manifested. The focus is on the pedestrian considering its needs, discussing the spatial environment as dictated by the hierarchy of needs, the relationship of movement and non-movement within the urban street space thereby creating a unique, street culture. A user-centered approach considers the users as agents of change. Their loyalty towards a given space is manifested by their constant presence not only as passers-by but as active participants in the given space thereby reflecting the level of effectiveness of a pedestrian facility.

User Characteristics. Given that most Asian cities are agrarian-based societies, the social configuration of their streets reflect a strong sense of group belonging which strengthens the need for harmony within the community. Moreover, Asian street users reflect higher tolerance to density although at varying levels. For example, while Manila subjects tend to be mixed and diverse, and tend to move in groups, in pairs and in a number of instances as well as alone, Edo street users are more homogeneous and never alone. Personal distance is common in Edo while intimate distance is similar to both. With respect to individual behavior, in Edo, it implies a combination of movement and non-movement activities acted out in short, quick periods while in Manila it is more intimate, highly involved interaction and laid back existence. Edo individuals are portrayed to be more active, dynamic and mobile compared to their Manila counterpart, Manila street users are more involved and generally more passive because of the assimilation of Castilian culture.

User Need Need-hierarchy. The need-hierarchy concept established the street user needs which when provided, is assumed to increase their satisfaction level and increase the loyalty towards the use of a given space, thus, becoming a viable incentive in changing people's behavior in the use of the street space. Given that street users are the main consumers of space, there should be more emphasis on their needs and desires. Needs of street users include: Movement, Protection, Ease, Enjoyment and socialization, Equity, Identity. AHP street user survey determined that street users prefer a pedestrian environment that is protected, provides ease and equitable street environment. To achieve protection and ease, alternative priorities include provision of evening lighting and police presence as well as shaded walking area while to increase identity, integrating cultural elements, thematic development as well as allowing other uses in the streets.

Relationship of Movement and Non-Movement. The concept of non-movement within Asian streets grew out of the realization that in order to provide sustainable spaces, it is necessary to consider the various behaviors exhibited by the pedestrian and other street users on the streets. This means considering streets not only as distribution but more importantly as communication networks. In such a case, movement behavior is translated into non-movement space. The non-movement aspect is an important element in Edo and colonial Manila street spaces wherein such activities are conducted in pairs or group of street users, reflecting a collectivist attitude which characterizes our Agrarian antecedents.

IV.CONCLUSION

The study was able to discuss the ecological origin as potential source of generating better understanding of street culture as well as the socio-cultural underpinnings of Asian pedestrians and how these affect the use of space. At the macro-level, it compared various aspects of planning principles adopted as well as external factors (i.e. environmental conditions, social/religious beliefs) that had contributed to its present state. While at the micro-level, it analyzed emergent spaces, both functional and social purposes, and how the spaces were derived signaling the importance of pedestrian culture in developing effective spaces. Furthermore, it was able to comprehensively discuss various socio-cultural manifestations that would affect pedestrian facility design and policy development given the culturally-specific movement and non-movement behavior of Asian pedestrians. It also discussed results of surveys conducted to further evaluate the theoretical viability of the concept of the need-hierarchy. The corresponding concept, the Hierarchy of street user needs refuted the notion of pedestrians as only moving entity. Satisfaction can be contributed not by providing mobility but ensuring that streets and sidewalks are protected, provides ease and equitable.

It was able to develop the concept of movement and non-movement, further strengthening the importance of the latter towards the Asian street. It was proven that there was high occurrence of social interaction and communication as well as the presence of groupings. Non-movement activities are very prominent in both the past and contemporary Asian street space implying the social quality of Asian space. It further suggests the need to integrate the non-movement aspect as an important component of street planning and design.

本論文は、街路空間に求められる特性について、歴史学的な方法論と消費者行動学的な方法論の両面から調査・分析するとともに、街路空間の計画や設計の上で今後のあるべき方向性について考察したものである。

街路空間そのものは、人類の歴史とともにあるといっても良いほど長い歴史を持ち、その中では単なる交通機能ばかりでなくその時代と地域の特性を負った多様な機能と文化とが担われてきた。近代街路の構造的特性、すなわち、歩道と車道の構成、街路樹、排水勾配、路面舗装、線形設計と都市空間におけるネットワーク構成、沿道建築物との関係性など、の基本的構成の多くは、古代ローマ帝国において既に大局が定まったものとなっており、19世紀以降、細部の技術的要素や自動車の登場に伴う機能向上について進歩も含めて、その多くがヨーロッパやアメリカなどに西洋諸国によるものであった。わが国を含めたアジア諸国においても近代化とともに、こうした近代街路の計画思想や設計思想が導入されてきたが、アジア古来の人と街路の関係性や気候風土の特性までは必ずしも十分な配慮がなされてきたとは言いがたいのが実情である。

本論文は、こうした状況認識に立脚して研究の問題設定を行い、比較歴史学的な方法論と消費者行動論的な方法論の二面から、アジアにおける街路空間の特性を図ることを目指した研究である。本論文の主要部は、序論部と結論部のほかに、次の4つのパートによって構成されている。まず、非移動行動(論文中ではNMA:Non Movement Activities)を含めた歩行者の特性と空間計画及び設計への要請に関する既往研究の体系化とその中でのアジア都市の特性分析を行った第1部、江戸期の東京(江戸)とスペイン統治下のマニラを対象に浮世絵などの絵画や写真の計量分析にベースを置いて街路への諸要請とアジア的特性の抽出を意図した第2部、現代のマニラとバンコクを対象にして実施した利用者調査の結果を分析し歩行者の現代的な要請を数値的に把握することを意図した第3部、そうした知見を取りまとめた上で、アジアの現代的街路または歴史的地区の街路に求められる計画上・設計上の諸特性を取りまとめ提示する第4部となっている。

まず、第1部の総論部では、アジアとヨーロッパの街路空間の構成要素とそれを支える理念を整理するとともに、古今東西の「文明論」を参考にしながら、共通する基本要請と地域によって差異のある諸特性を区分けし、両者の関係性を考察している。そこでは相当数に及ぶ広範囲の文献がサーベイされ、この分野における高品質のレビュー論文として仕上げられている。この部分を筆者が取りまとめた審査付論文に関しては、特に「森林文明」と街路の計画・設計の関係性を述べた点が高く評価され、2005年のアジア交通学会優秀論文賞が授与されている。

第2部のビジュアルメディアの分析部では、亜熱帯・温帯のモンスーンアジア的要素が一時期隔離的に保存されていたはずの地域サンプルとしての江戸と、逆にスペインの植民地として、ヨーロッパ的な計画思想と設計要素が導入され、それがアジア的な気候風土の中で変容・融合していったはずの地域サンプルとしてスペイン統治下のマニラが取り上げられている点と、街路風景を扱った多数の浮世絵や写真などのビジュアルメディアに描写されている、種々のハードアイテムとともに画面上に登場する人と人の関係性などが頻度分布など数値的に比較分析されている点が、大変ユニークな方法論となっておりまた興味深い結果をもたらしている。分析結果の一例を挙げる。両地域に共通するものとしての非移動行動(NMA:Non Movement Activities)の頻発性と多様性、高密性が挙げられ、これこそがモンスーン気候に支えられた豊穣な風土と人口をもったアジアの最も重要な要素であると結論つけられている。逆に、登場人物の間でeye-to-eyeコンタクトが顕著なマニラとそれがほとんど見られない江戸の特性が発見され、著者はそれを西洋的な一神教的カルチャーの影響の違いと考察している。

第3部の利用者調査では、街路の計画・設計のニーズの高い東南アジアの都市が取り上げられ、歩行者を対象としたインテンシブな意識調査が行われ、第2部で歴史的に得られた街路の歩行者空間要請に関する諸仮説を現代において検証・確認するとともに、新たな時代要請を抽出するため、AHP(階層的意思決定理論)による数量化と分析が行われている。多くのアジア的要請が今もなお、アジア諸都市の街路空間には強く求められていることが検証されるとともに、同時に自動車からの安全上・環境上(排気ガスや騒音)のプロテクションや防犯上必要とされる照度など新たなニーズが明らかにされている。

第4部では以上の知見が、街路の計画上・設計上の要請としてとりまとめられるとともに、一部については著者の設計アイデアとして具体的に提案されている(例えば交差点空間の改善プランなど)。

以上が本論文の概要であるが、アジアの街路空間を歩行者側面に立ってしかも比較歴史学的に分析した研究の方法論と内容は極めてユニークなものといってよく、今後さらに検証が必要な課題やさらに深度化すべき課題が少なくないとはいえ、提出論文は博士論文の成果として十分なものがあるものと審査員一同判定する次第である。また、論文審査時に行われた社会基盤学一般に関する口頭試問においても、提出者が十分優秀な成績であるものと判断された。

よって本論文は博士(工学)の学位請求論文として合格と認められる。