National parks (NPs) have encapsulated a balancing act of protection and promotion of natural resources since their establishment. Early trends favoured protective 'set-aside' policies based on the 'Yellowstone model,' but in recent decades the 'eco-island paradigm has perceptibly shifted towards `community-based conservation.'

At the heart of this ongoing debate lie diverse priorities of NP Management (NPM). For although NPs provide a range of public goods, conflict between national and local interests is not uncommon. Japanese NPM issues, like their European counterparts, face additional complication due to the Chiikisei system. Moreover, they have been exacerbated by visitation, which is among the highest in the world, and recent diversification of visitor use. In mountainous NPs the impact on the natural environment and visitor experience has been magnified by sudden improvements in access to fragile biomes. Previous research has suggested that interpretation can help protect NPs by reducing unwanted impacts and offering `revelation' instead of just information. Interpretation can thus help visitors achieve their recreation goals while communicating key messages from NPM. This thesis therefore investigates interpretive mediums used by different visitor segments at two such NPs.

Chapter 1 introduces the subject and outline of the work. Interpretation is proposed as a management tool with which to reconcile protection and promotion in NPs, but in order to effectively match NPM messages with visitor demand, targeted marketing based on socio-economic monitoring (SEM) is essential. Definitions of key terms are provided and the following specific research questions (RQs) are defined:

RQ 1: What is interpretation and how has it evolved in NPs with respect to the protection-promotion trade-off?

RQ2: What type of interpretation is effective at Mt Fuji and Kamikochi today?

RQ3: What lessons can be adapted from interpretation into a NPM strategy?

In Chapter 2, the roots of the NP concept are examined. Mechanisms of access restriction to natural resources are an ancient form of governance, yet the use of legal precedent to protect areas of natural and cultural beauty, promoting them as permanent `national' assets, was a new approach to land management. Thus, the `Yellowstone model was born; yet in order to overcome resource extraction interests it relied on an ultimately contradictory alliance, whereby "concessioners needed tourists to generate profits, while the NPS needed them to ensure congressional appropriations and, in turn, bureaucratic survival" (Barringer, 2002). Expansion and diversification of the US NP system thus necessitated an interpretation system to fill this ideological divide and provide a NPM criteria to give direction to i) NP designation and ii) supply of visitor experience.

Chapter 3 investigates the application of the 'Yellowstone model' to Japanese NPs. Having summarized core differences due to Chiikisei NPM which relies on wing and regulation, four eras are used to chart the evolution of Japanese NPM; i) promotion of tourism; ii) rapid growth; iii) nature conservation; iv) biodiversity conservation. Findings suggest that the pre-war promotion-protection equilibrium was altered by post-war changes to administration along US lines. The rapid growth era tilted both NP designation and visitor experience towards promotion driven by the private sector and regional government. Consequently, a protective backlash triggered a nature conservation era in which a new Environment Agency (EA) was born. Thus central government has since been obliged to focus on protective measures due to an under-funded and vertically fragmented NPM structure, reviewed here via land ownership and trends in budget and personnel. Despite an increased role for the Ministry of Environment (MOE) in recent years, co-management through collaboration remains the key to effective Chiikisei NPM.

Chapter 4 next defines the theoretical framework for fieldwork, which consisted of a qualitative case study of Japan's NPs supported by quantitative evaluation of visitor demand at two research sites. A starting presumption is that "personal interpretation is the most direct and effective approach to interpretive services" (Chen, 2006). However, as such methods are not always cost-effective or practical, a model was developed around Attended and Unattended Interpretation (AI:UI). On-site interpretation requires appropriate messaging mediums targeted at specific segments in order to be effective: therefore the fieldwork sought to determine demand from different visitor segments. Unlike the agricultural concept of carrying capacity it is theorized that this kind of social marketing may have practical implications for NPM. Data collection consisted of on-site structured questionnaires, supported by interviews and document analysis.

The aim of Chapter 5 is to assess the UI model from the Mt. Fuji case study. First, a literature review describes how government policy and a succession of climbing booms have transformed Fuji climbing from a religious experience into recreation. There has been widespread development around the foot and approach areas, although large-scale recreation development, such as cable-car projects, has also been regulated. Improved access infrastructure lead to large increases in visitation, especially from 1969 onwards. Fuji's image suffered due to a range of NPM issues symbolized by trash and toilets, but these sparked a series of reciprocal nature conservation movements. As well as increasing, visitor demand also diversified, with more women, elderly and international climbers in recent decades. Yet a majority of climbers are young, male, first-time `experience-seekers' who climb in small groups without a guide. Next, an innovative council set up in 2009 to standardize trail signs is introduced and the role of trail signs investigated. Their symbolic renovation was validated by these results, which show that they are the medium likely to reach the largest target audience. However, more nature and culture explanations are needed. Moreover there is still scant evidence of management responding to specific visitor needs, including programs that provide mountain climbing information such as weather forecasts. Finally, evaluation suggests a small yet vocal minority who feel that the roles of the Visitor Centre, Fuji Staff and Guides are entirely unfulfilled. Thus although trail signs have improved, this integrated approach to communication intervention based on collaboration among different actors needs to proactively link research results with NPM.

The aim of Chapter 6 is to assess the AI model from the Kamikochi case study. The literature review shows Kamikochi to have undergone a similar commodification process to Fuji, with large-scale access development driving up visitation. As at Fuji, trash and toilets have been the two key management issues, but they have been met by a similar combination of local actor campaigns supported by incentives from national government. Moreover, Kamikochi visitor demand has evolved into a nature-based tourism (NBT) niche market that mediated its `Alpine' roots with the subsequent influx of mass tourism. A framework of three visitor segments, Sightseers (SS), Day Hikers (DH) and Mountain Climbers (MC) was devised according to the range of intended activity. Amidst general trends of a slight downturn in visitor use, accompanied by ageing and diversification in visitor use, the DH segment is key to achieving a sustainable niche, with results showing higher levels of repeaters, overnight stays and economic impact. This fact has been recognized by Kamikochi NPM, and a Nature Guide Council was established in 2007 to provide a collaborative actor response to an increased need for guided tours. The Council has internal goals, such as ongoing training to improve the quality of explanation, and external ones such as education and joint PR. It was the subject of a follow-up survey targeting the visitors of one of the nature guide companies. Results suggest the DH segment offers the most effective rallying point for collaborative management, maximizing benefits from small-scale and sustainable recreation.

In Chapter 7, interpretation is defined as NPM collaboration which provides a range of targeted visitor services aligned around a set of clearly-defined management goals. The Al model appears to be the most surefire way of communicating an NPM message, but UI has advantages in terms of reaching a wider audience. Marketing is vital to both, and Fuji and Kamkochi have been successful in offsetting the negative impact of visitor use, particularly the key mountain issues of toilets and trash. The role of government has shifted from provision of 'hard' infrastructure to promoting 'soft' policies that aim to meet the needs of diverse visitor demand. Kamikochi's AI vision seems on track to provide tailor-made visitor services to a pre-determined niche market, thus utilizing the NP's added value. UI at Fuji has also improved dramatically, setting new global standards for multi-lingual trail signs. However, certain messages, such as natural and cultural explanation, and mediums, such as the Visitor Centre, remain problematic. Although the changing nuances of 'interpretation' reflect changes in visitor demand, integration of protection with promotion remains essential to tackling the `people versus parks' dilemma. The findings of this paper suggest that active promotion of NPs is required based on a sustainable strategy which reflects ongoing SEM surveys such as this one in order to maximize the use of limited resources and minimize the impact on the natural environment. To fund such social marketing, safeguard the NP brand and prevent tragedy of open access, an access fee system is recommended, with the current toilet tip system the logical start point.

In conclusion, different models of interpretation are effective at different NPs. Moreover, SEM is only as effective as the underlying NPM, so Chapter 8 acknowledges that NP governance relies on consensus-building mechanisms among local and national actors. This collaboration, combined with transparent platforms for public participation, are the two factors essential for furthering the integration of protection and promotion into NPM.

本論文は、国立公園管理制度のインタープリテーションについて、2箇所の山岳国立公園の事例研究から明確にしたものである。

1章では、研究課題及び概要を提示した。

2章では、国立公園の概念のルーツを調査した。自然資源へのアクセス規制は旧来からのガバナンス手法であるが、国によって永続的に保護される資源の利用を促進することは、新たなアプローチであった。この「イエローストーンモデル」における利用者数の確保は、民間の関係者にとっても利益のために必要であり、所管部局にとっても国からの予算を確保するために必要であった。米国の国立公園において、この矛盾を克服するためにインタープリテーションのシステム構築がまず必要になった。

3章では日本の国立公園に導入された「イエローストーンモデル」の時系列分析を行った。日本の国立公園制度の展開をi)観光推進期、ii)高度成長期、iii)自然保護期、iv)生物多様性保護期、の4つの時期に区分した。高度成長期では、国立公園の指定が推進され、利用の側面が重視された。経済発展優先による汚染問題に対する反発は、自然保護期への移行を招来し、設立された環境庁は生物多様性保護期を通じて規制中心の国立公園管理をおこなった。土地所有、予算、及び人材の推移から現状を把握し、地域制国立公園には連携した協同管理が有効であることを述べた。

4章では、日本の国立公園の質的なケーススタディ、及び2箇所の事例における利用需要の定量的な分析を行った。先行研究では、随行型インタープリテーション(以下、AI)は一番効果的なアプローチとあるが、必ずしも費用効果的ではなく、利用者全員が利用する方法でもないので、非随行型のモデルも調査した。双方とも、利用者の属性により異なるメッセージ及び手段が必要となるため、利用者層を把握することが重要であり、データ収集は現地アンケート及びヒアリング調査、文献調査に拠った。

5章では、まず文献調査から、富士登山が宗教体験からマスツーリズムに変化した流れを明らかにした。アンケート結果によると、「20~30代」・「男性」・「始めて」といった、ガイドを付けない小グループが圧倒的に多い。非随行型インタープリテーション(以下、UI)を調べるため、道標に着目し、2009年に設立された富士山標識関係者連絡協議会の役割を調査した。その結果、道標の利用率が最も高く、最も有効であるが、自然及び文化の説明、天気予報などの登山に特化した情報を提供するプログラムが不十分で、ビジターセンター、富士スタッフ、ガイドの有用性が低いという回答が見られた。協議会による道標の改善は進んでいるが、今後もなお、socio-economic monitoring(SEM)の調査結果を積極的にインタープリテーション戦略にリンクさせていく必要がある。

6章では、まず文献調査から、富士山と同様、アクセス及びゴミが主な管理課題であることを明らかにした。上高地の場合「美しくする会」(1963年)に象徴される地元の連携が早い段階で現れていた。利用層を観光客、デイハイカー、登山家に3分類し、分析を行った。デイハイカー型はリピート率、宿泊率及び経済効果が最も高いので、持続可能な利用に重要である。そのAIニーズに対応するため、地元の企業・団体の連携による上高地ネイチャーガイド協議会が2007年に設立された。そのツアーの参加者を対象にした追加調査によると、年齢、年収、最終学歴が高く、教育・コミュニケーション・エンタテイメントの観点から満足度が高く、AIが非常に役に立ったとの回答が多かった。

7章では、インタープリテーションを、「明確な戦略に基づき、利用者の特性に応じて提供されるサービスで、関係者との連携のもとに国立公園が発信するもの」と定義する。国の役割はインフラを整備することから、遠隔利用されるインターネットのような手段を含めたインタープリテーションシステムの整備へと重点を移してきた。道標等のUIは最低限必要であり、さらに持続可能なAI戦略づくりまでをそれぞれの国立公園に即して考えなければならない。それらは最終的には国立公園の存在理由を主張し、政治的な裏づけを維持するためにも望ましいものなのである。

8章では、インタープリテーションは、利用需要、及び国立公園の変化を直接的に反映するものであり、「人と公園のジレンマ」を克服するために不可欠なものであることが示された。

本論文は、国立公園の保護と利用の調和のためには、1)長期的な利用戦略にインタープリテーションを導入すること2)SEM、3)地域制の連携をとったガバナンス、が必要であることを明らかにしたもので、学術上かつ応用上貢献するところが少なくない。よって審査委員一同は、本論文が博士(農学)の学位論文として十分な価値を有するものと判定した。